A peer-reviewed study published in 2023 in the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology surveyed 12,456 participants across 37 countries to measure endorsement of precarious manhood beliefs—the idea that being a 'real man' is not automatic but must be earned and repeatedly demonstrated through behavior and success. Using multilevel modeling, researchers aggregated these beliefs at the country level and correlated them with international datasets including the World Happiness Report, World Bank GDP statistics, WHO life expectancy data, Gallup World Poll measures of social support, and Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index.

The analysis found that nations with stronger precarious manhood beliefs exhibited significantly lower national happiness, lower GDP per capita, reduced life expectancy, weaker social support networks, and higher perceived corruption. This work builds on foundational research by psychologists Joseph Vandello and Jennifer Bosson (Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2008), who established the precarious manhood framework primarily in U.S. samples.

PsyPost's coverage accurately reported the core associations but missed key contextual patterns and mechanisms. It underplayed how these beliefs create self-reinforcing cycles: emotional suppression and risk-taking among men contribute to higher male mortality from accidents, violence, and suicide, dragging down national life expectancy. The coverage also failed to connect the findings to broader theories like Raewyn Connell's hegemonic masculinity, which explains how competitive, dominance-oriented gender norms undermine social trust and increase corruption perceptions.

A related 2021 study in Psychology of Men & Masculinities on regional variations within the United States revealed similar links between rigid masculinity norms and poorer community health outcomes, showing the pattern holds at multiple scales. Nordic countries, with lower precarious manhood scores, demonstrate the opposite: higher gender egalitarianism correlates with stronger social safety nets and life satisfaction.

Limitations are important: the study is correlational, so causation remains unclear—economic stress or political instability may intensify rigid gender views rather than the reverse. The sample of 37 countries over-represents Europe and North America and under-represents sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia. Self-report bias on sensitive gender attitudes is another concern.

This research reveals that gender norms are not private matters but powerful drivers of societal outcomes. Challenging the notion that manhood requires constant proving could reduce harmful competition, improve men's mental health, and strengthen social cohesion, ultimately raising well-being for everyone.